Key To Steel 2010
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The of aSteel is an of and, and sometimes other elements. Because of its high and low cost, it is a major component used in, and.Iron is the of steel.
Iron is able to take on two crystalline forms (allotropic forms), depending on its temperature. In the body-centered cubic arrangement, there is an iron atom in the center and eight atoms at the vertices of each cubic unit cell; in the face-centered cubic, there is one atom at the center of each of the six faces of the cubic unit cell and eight atoms at its vertices. It is the interaction of the with the alloying elements, primarily carbon, that gives steel and their range of unique properties.In pure iron, the has relatively little resistance to the iron atoms slipping past one another, and so pure iron is quite, or soft and easily formed. In steel, small amounts of carbon, other elements, and inclusions within the iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of.The carbon in typical steel alloys may contribute up to 2.14% of its weight. Varying the amount of carbon and many other alloying elements, as well as controlling their chemical and physical makeup in the final steel (either as solute elements, or as precipitated phases), slows the movement of those dislocations that make pure iron ductile, and thus controls and enhances its qualities. These qualities include the, need for, and of the resulting steel.
The increase in steel's strength compared to pure iron is possible only by reducing iron's ductility.Steel was produced in furnaces for thousands of years, but its large-scale, industrial use began only after more efficient production methods were devised in the 17th century, with the introduction of the and production of. This was followed by the and then the in in the mid-19thcentury. With the invention of the Bessemer process, a new era of steel began. Mild steel replaced.Further refinements in the process, such as (BOS), largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the final product. Today, steel is one of the most common manmade materials in the world, with more than 1.6 billion tons produced annually. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted.
Iron-carbon equilibrium, showing the conditions necessary to form different phasesIron is commonly found in the Earth's in the form of an, usually an iron oxide, such as. Iron is extracted from by removing the oxygen through its combination with a preferred chemical partner such as carbon which is then lost to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. This process, known as, was first applied to metals with lower points, such as, which melts at about 250 °C (482 °F), and, which melts at about 1,100 °C (2,010 °F), and the combination, bronze, which has a melting point lower than 1,083 °C (1,981 °F). In comparison, cast iron melts at about 1,375 °C (2,507 °F). Small quantities of iron were smelted in ancient times, in the solid state, by heating the ore in a fire and then welding the clumps together with a hammer and in the process squeezing out the impurities.
With care, the carbon content could be controlled by moving it around in the fire. Unlike copper and tin, liquid or solid iron dissolves carbon quite readily.All of these temperatures could be reached with ancient methods used since the. Since the oxidation rate of iron increases rapidly beyond 800 °C (1,470 °F), it is important that smelting take place in a low-oxygen environment.
Smelting, using carbon to reduce iron oxides, results in an alloy that retains too much carbon to be called steel. The excess carbon and other impurities are removed in a subsequent step.Other materials are often added to the iron/carbon mixture to produce steel with desired properties. And in steel add to its tensile strength and make the form of the iron-carbon solution more stable, increases hardness and melting temperature, and also increases hardness while making it less prone to.To inhibit corrosion, at least 11% chromium is added to steel so that a hard forms on the metal surface; this is known as. Tungsten slows the formation of, keeping carbon in the iron matrix and allowing to preferentially form at slower quench rates, resulting in. On the other hand, sulfur, and are considered contaminants that make steel more brittle and are removed from the steel melt during processing.The of steel varies based on the alloying constituents but usually ranges between 7,750 and 8,050 kg/m 3 (484 and 503 lb/cu ft), or 7.75 and 8.05 g/cm 3 (4.48 and 4.65 oz/cu in).Even in a narrow range of concentrations of mixtures of carbon and iron that make a steel, a number of different metallurgical structures, with very different properties can form.
Understanding such properties is essential to making quality steel. At, the most stable form of pure iron is the (BCC) structure called alpha iron or α-iron. It is a fairly soft metal that can dissolve only a small concentration of carbon, no more than 0.005% at 0 °C (32 °F) and 0.021 wt% at 723 °C (1,333 °F).
The inclusion of carbon in alpha iron is called. At 910 °C, pure iron transforms into a (FCC) structure, called gamma iron or γ-iron. The inclusion of carbon in gamma iron is called austenite. The more open FCC structure of austenite can dissolve considerably more carbon, as much as 2.1% (38 times that of ferrite) carbon at 1,148 °C (2,098 °F), which reflects the upper carbon content of steel, beyond which is cast iron. When carbon moves out of solution with iron, it forms a very hard, but brittle material called cementite (Fe 3C).When steels with exactly 0.8% carbon (known as a eutectoid steel), are cooled, the phase (FCC) of the mixture attempts to revert to the ferrite phase (BCC). The carbon no longer fits within the FCC austenite structure, resulting in an excess of carbon.
One way for carbon to leave the austenite is for it to out of solution as, leaving behind a surrounding phase of BCC iron called ferrite with a small percentage of carbon in solution. The two, ferrite and cementite, precipitate simultaneously producing a layered structure called, named for its resemblance to. In a hypereutectoid composition (greater than 0.8% carbon), the carbon will first precipitate out as large inclusions of cementite at the austenite until the percentage of carbon in the has decreased to the eutectoid composition (0.8% carbon), at which point the pearlite structure forms. For steels that have less than 0.8% carbon (hypoeutectoid), ferrite will first form within the grains until the remaining composition rises to 0.8% of carbon, at which point the pearlite structure will form. No large inclusions of cementite will form at the boundaries in hypoeuctoid steel. The above assumes that the cooling process is very slow, allowing enough time for the carbon to migrate.As the rate of cooling is increased the carbon will have less time to migrate to form carbide at the grain boundaries but will have increasingly large amounts of pearlite of a finer and finer structure within the grains; hence the carbide is more widely dispersed and acts to prevent slip of defects within those grains, resulting in hardening of the steel.
At the very high cooling rates produced by quenching, the carbon has no time to migrate but is locked within the face-centered austenite and forms. Martensite is a highly strained and stressed, supersaturated form of carbon and iron and is exceedingly hard but brittle.
Depending on the carbon content, the martensitic phase takes different forms. Below 0.2% carbon, it takes on a ferrite BCC crystal form, but at higher carbon content it takes a (BCT) structure. There is no thermal for the transformation from austenite to martensite. Moreover, there is no compositional change so the atoms generally retain their same neighbors.Martensite has a lower density (it expands during the cooling) than does austenite, so that the transformation between them results in a change of volume. In this case, expansion occurs.
Internal stresses from this expansion generally take the form of on the crystals of martensite and on the remaining ferrite, with a fair amount of on both constituents. If quenching is done improperly, the internal stresses can cause a part to shatter as it cools.
At the very least, they cause internal and other microscopic imperfections. It is common for quench cracks to form when steel is water quenched, although they may not always be visible.
Heat treatment. Main article:There are many types of processes available to steel. The most common are,. Heat treatment is effective on compositions above the eutectoid composition (hypereutectoid) of 0.8% carbon. Hypoeutectoid steel does not benefit from heat treatment.Annealing is the process of heating the steel to a sufficiently high temperature to relieve local internal stresses. It does not create a general softening of the product but only locally relieves strains and stresses locked up within the material.
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Annealing goes through three phases:,. The temperature required to anneal a particular steel depends on the type of annealing to be achieved and the alloying constituents.Quenching involves heating the steel to create the austenite phase then quenching it in water.
This rapid cooling results in a hard but brittle martensitic structure. The steel is then tempered, which is just a specialized type of annealing, to reduce brittleness. In this application the annealing (tempering) process transforms some of the martensite into cementite, or and hence it reduces the internal stresses and defects. The result is a more ductile and fracture-resistant steel. Steel production. Pellets for the production of steelWhen iron is smelted from its ore, it contains more carbon than is desirable.
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To become steel, it must be reprocessed to reduce the carbon to the correct amount, at which point other elements can be added. In the past, steel facilities would cast the raw steel product into ingots which would be stored until use in further refinement processes that resulted in the finished product. In modern facilities, the initial product is close to the final composition and is into long slabs, cut and shaped into bars and extrusions and heat-treated to produce a final product.
Today only a small fraction is into. Approximately 96% of steel is continuously cast, while only 4% is produced as ingots.The ingots are then heated in a soaking pit and into slabs,. Slabs are hot or into or plates. Billets are hot or cold rolled into bars, rods, and wire.
Blooms are hot or cold rolled into, such as. In modern steel mills these processes often occur in one, with ore coming in and finished steel products coming out. Sometimes after a steel's final rolling, it is heat treated for strength; however, this is relatively rare.
History of steelmaking. Smelting during the Ancient steel Steel was known in antiquity and was produced in and crucibles.The earliest known production of steel is seen in pieces of ironware excavated from an in and are nearly 4,000 years old, dating from 1800 BC.
Identifies steel weapons such as the in the, while was used by the.The reputation of Seric iron of South India (wootz steel) grew considerably in the rest of the world. Metal production sites in employed wind furnaces driven by the monsoon winds, capable of producing high-carbon steel. Large-scale production in using crucibles and carbon sources such as the plant occurred by the sixth century BC, the pioneering precursor to modern steel production and metallurgy.The of the (403–221 BC) had steel, while Chinese of the (202 BC – 220 AD) created steel by melting together wrought iron with cast iron, gaining an ultimate product of a carbon-intermediate steel by the 1st century AD.There is evidence that was made in Western by the ancestors of the as early as 2,000 years ago by a complex process of 'pre-heating' allowing temperatures inside a furnace to reach 1300 to 1400° C. Wootz steel and Damascus steel.
Main articles: andEvidence of the earliest production of high carbon steel in are found in in, the area in and, and in the areas of. This came to be known as, produced in South India by about sixth century BC and exported globally. The steel technology existed prior to 326 BC in the region as they are mentioned in literature of, Arabic and Latin as the finest steel in the world exported to the Romans, Egyptian, Chinese and Arab worlds at that time – what they called Seric Iron. A, in the South East of Sri Lanka, brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the. The Chinese and locals in, Sri Lanka had also adopted the production methods of creating Wootz steel from the Tamils of South India by the 5th century AD. In Sri Lanka, this early steel-making method employed a unique wind furnace, driven by the monsoon winds, capable of producing high-carbon steel. Since the technology was acquired from the from South Indiathe origin of steel technology in India can be conservatively estimated at 400–500 BC.The manufacture of what came to be called Wootz, or, famous for its durability and ability to hold an edge, may have been taken by the Arabs from Persia, who took it from India.
It was originally created from a number of different materials including various, apparently ultimately from the writings of. In 327 BC, was rewarded by the defeated King, not with gold or silver but with 30 pounds of steel. Recent studies have suggested that were included in its structure, which might explain some of its legendary qualities, though given the technology of that time, such qualities were produced by chance rather than by design. Natural wind was used where the soil containing iron was heated by the use of wood. The managed to extract a ton of steel for every 2 tons of soil, a remarkable feat at the time. One such furnace was found in Samanalawewa and archaeologists were able to produce steel as the ancients did., formed by slowly heating and cooling pure iron and carbon (typically in the form of charcoal) in a crucible, was produced in by the 9th to 10th century AD.
In the 11th century, there is evidence of the production of steel in using two techniques: a 'berganesque' method that produced inferior, inhomogeneous steel, and a precursor to the modern that used partial decarbonization via repeated forging under a. Modern steelmaking. Main articles: andIn these processes pig iron was refined (fined) in a to produce, which was then used in steel-making.The production of steel by the was described in a treatise published in Prague in 1574 and was in use in from 1601. A similar process for armor and files was described in a book published in in 1589. The process was introduced to England in about 1614 and used to produce such steel by Sir at during the 1610s.The raw material for this process were bars of iron.
During the 17th century it was realized that the best steel came from of a region north of, Sweden. This was still the usual raw material source in the 19th century, almost as long as the process was used.Crucible steel is steel that has been melted in a rather than having been, with the result that it is more homogeneous. Most previous furnaces could not reach high enough temperatures to melt the steel. The early modern crucible steel industry resulted from the invention of in the 1740s. Blister steel (made as above) was melted in a crucible or in a furnace, and cast (usually) into ingots. Processes starting from pig iron.
White-hot steel pouring out of an electric arc furnace.The modern era in began with the introduction of 's in 1855, the raw material for which was pig iron. His method let him produce steel in large quantities cheaply, thus came to be used for most purposes for which wrought iron was formerly used. The Gilchrist-Thomas process (or basic Bessemer process) was an improvement to the Bessemer process, made by lining the converter with a material to remove phosphorus.Another 19th-century steelmaking process was the, which complemented the Bessemer process. It consisted of co-melting bar iron (or steel scrap) with pig iron.These methods of steel production were rendered obsolete by the Linz-Donawitz process of (BOS), developed in 1952, and other oxygen steel making methods. Basic oxygen steelmaking is superior to previous steelmaking methods because the oxygen pumped into the furnace limited impurities, primarily nitrogen, that previously had entered from the air used, and because, with respect to the open-hearth process, the same quantity of steel from a BOS process is manufactured in one-twelfth the time. Today, (EAF) are a common method of reprocessing to create new steel.
They can also be used for converting pig iron to steel, but they use a lot of electrical energy (about 440 kWh per metric ton), and are thus generally only economical when there is a plentiful supply of cheap electricity. Steel industry. Steel production (in million tons) by country in 2007The steel industry is often considered an indicator of economic progress, because of the critical role played by steel in infrastructural and overall. In 1980, there were more than 500,000 U.S. By 2000, the number of steelworkers fell to 224,000.The in China and India caused a massive increase in the demand for steel.
Between 2000 and 2005, world steel demand increased by 6%. Since 2000, several Indian and Chinese steel firms have risen to prominencesuch as (which bought in 2007),. Candito linear program review. As of 2017, though, is the world's. In 2005, the stated China was the top steel producer with about one-third of the world share; Japan, Russia, and the US followed respectively.In 2008, steel began on the.
At the end of 2008, the steel industry faced a sharp downturn that led to many cut-backs. Recycling. See also: Carbon steels Modern steels are made with varying combinations of alloy metals to fulfill many purposes., composed simply of iron and carbon, accounts for 90% of steel production. Is alloyed with other elements, usually, manganese, chromium, or nickel, in amounts of up to 10% by weight to improve the hardenability of thick sections.
Has small additions (usually. A roll of steel woolIron and steel are used widely in the construction of roads, railways, other infrastructure, appliances, and buildings. Most large modern structures, such as and skyscrapers, bridges, and airports, are supported by a steel skeleton. Even those with a concrete structure employ steel for reinforcing.
In addition, it sees widespread use in. Despite growth in usage of, it is still the main material for car bodies. Steel is used in a variety of other construction materials, such as bolts, and and other household products and cooking utensils.Other common applications include, (e.g.
), such as bulldozers, office furniture, and in the form of personal vests or (better known as in this role).Historical. A carbon steel knifeBefore the introduction of the and other modern production techniques, steel was expensive and was only used where no cheaper alternative existed, particularly for the cutting edge of, and other items where a hard, sharp edge was needed.
It was also used for, including those used in.With the advent of speedier and thriftier production methods, steel has become easier to obtain and much cheaper. It has replaced wrought iron for a multitude of purposes. However, the availability of plastics in the latter part of the 20th century allowed these materials to replace steel in some applications due to their lower fabrication cost and weight. Is replacing steel in some cost insensitive applications such as sports equipment and high end automobiles.Long steel.